Sci., 17, 32353244, doi:10.5194/hess-17- 3235-2013. As of 2016, the biggest was Banca Popolare di Milano (founded in 1865). Chang., 4, 828834, doi:10.1038/NCLIMATE2305. 2017b; Mudombi et al. Manage., 259, 698709, doi:10.1016/J.FORECO.2009.09.023. Econ., 106, 132143, doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2013.09.006. Sci. EPA, 2018: Irelands Final Greenhouse Gas Emissions: 19902016. 2015; Masera et al. Sustain., 1, 369374, doi:10.1038/s41893-018-0100-6. ILK can also play an important role in ecological restoration efforts, including for carbon sinks, through knowledge surrounding species selection and understanding of ecosystem processes, like fire (Kimmerer 2000). Setting it at the individual farm level would provide a direct incentive for farmers to adopt mitigation practices, however, the reality of having thousands of individual points of obligation would be administratively complex and could result in high transaction costs (Beca Ltd 20181665). 2014859; Clarke 2016860; Shreve and Kelman 2014861; Von Peter et al. ISEAL Alliance, 2018: Private Sustainability Standards and the EU Renewable Energy Directive. Agric. J., 21, 314363, doi:10.1017/S1357321715000239. Rights and Resources Initiative, 2018b: At a Crossroads: Consequential Trends in Recognition of Community-based Forest Tenure From 20022017. Belcher, B., M. Ruz-Prez, and R. Achdiawan, 2005: Global patterns and trends in the use and management of commercial NTFPs: Implications for livelihoods and conservation. This chapter applies and further improves methods used in previous IPCC reports including AR5 and the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5C (SR15) to assess risks. 20101120; Pahl-Wostl et al. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland,pp. "Credit Unions Twice as Trusted as Big Banks", "System Results: National System Review, Third Quarter, 2012", Co-op Group sells final stake in Co-op Bank, "About 100 million Americans are now using credit unions. It is funded by a 2% tax levy on all taxpayers, an extra 1% levy on high income earners, as well as general revenue. In drylands, weak land tenure security, either for households disadvantaged within a customary tenure system or more widely as such a system is eroded, can be associated with increased vulnerability and decreased adaptive capacity (limited evidence, high agreement). However, policy frameworks and strong institutions that align development, equity objectives, and climate have the potential to deliver triple-wins (Roy et al. 201451) (Sections 5.2.2 and 5.2.3). 2018695; Matthies et al. The climate scenario considered is a mitigation scenario consistent with limiting global warming at 2C (RCP2.6), however some studies considering other scenarios (e.g., no climate change) were considered in the expert judgement as well as results from other SSPs (e.g., SSP2). For smallholder systems, Bruce and Migot- Adholla (1994)1478 (among other authors) established that African customary tenure can provide the necessary security for long-term investments in farm fertility such as tree-planting. 2015259; Raleigh et al. Shared pastoral landscapes used by disadvantaged or otherwise vulnerable communities are particularly impacted on by conflicts that are likely to become more severe under future climate change (Salehyan and Hendrix 2014267; Hendrix and Salehyan 2012268). (2016b)168 estimate that 646 million people will be exposed to fire at 2C warming, the main risk driver being the high population growth in SSP3 rather than increased burned area due to climate change. Journal of Rural Studies, 54, 198210, doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.06.005. Governance processes determine how people in societies make decisions (Patterson et al. However, there is limited evidence and medium agreement that evaluating policies for coherence in responding to climate change and its impacts is not occurring, and policies are instead reviewed in a fragmented manner (Hurlbert and Gupta 20161162). Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) are commonly applied, especially for current climate variability situations. PLoS One, 12, e0171368, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171368. Curr. Minang, D. Foundjem-Tita, P. Makui, and S.M. PeerJ, 6, e5753, doi:10.7717/peerj.5753. High-interest rates, short-term maturities, and tight repayment schedules are destructive instruments for low- and middle-income borrowers which may lead to serious debt traps, or in best scenarios will not support any sort of capital accumulation. Washington, DC, USA, 12pp. Pannell, 2016: Challenges in developing effective policy for soil carbon sequestration: Perspectives on additionality, leakage, and permanence. Dietary change and reductions in food waste reduce agricultural demands, and effective land-use regulation enables reforestation and/or afforestation. Fostering equity and participation are correlated with the efficacy of local adaptation to secure food and livelihood security (Laube et al. In terms of policies, not only is timing important, but the type of intervention itself can influence returns (high evidence, high agreement). et al., 2009: Effects of river impoundment on ecosystem services of large tropical rivers: Embodied energy and market value of artisanal fisheries. This process has been applied in relation to coastal sea level rise, starting with low-risk, low-cost measures and working up to measures requiring greater investment after review and reevaluation (Barnett et al. Australian health funds can be either 'for profit' including Bupa and nib; 'mutual' including Australian Unity; or 'non-profit' including GMHBA, HCF and the HBF Health Insurance. Energy Policy, 39, 57635769, doi:10.1016/J.ENPOL.2011.03.054. Land derives its value to humans from being a finite resource and vital for life, providing important ES from water recycling, food, feed, fuel, biodiversity and carbon storage and sequestration. Alston, J.M., and P.G. GCB Bioenergy, 9, 627644, doi:10.1111/gcbb.12360. Ethics, Policy Environ., 20, 208226, doi:10.1080/21550085.2017.1342963. 2010). World Dev., 33, 14351452, doi:10.1016/j. Extreme events could considerably enhance these risks, in particular long-term drying trends (Kelley et al. The specification in Equation (1) allows for unit-specific intercepts and linear trends in addition to unit-specific mean and slope shifts. J. Che, 2018: The effects of climate change on GDP by country and the global economic gains from complying with the Paris climate accord. To better predict, respond to, and prepare for concurrent agricultural failures, and gain a more systematic assessment of exposure to agricultural climate risk, large data gaps need to be filled, as well as gaps in empirical foundation and analytical capabilities (Janetos et al. To improve the awareness and better health care facilities, Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India and The General Corporation of India runs health care campaigns for the whole population. 2013806). ? - , Kit Siang moots Anwar for PM10, touts his commitment to plural Malaysia, Warisan fields ex-MCA president Ong Tee Keat in Pandan, former Bukit Bintang MP Wee Choo Keong in Wangsa Maju, Larry Sng to meet Zuraida, PBM supreme council in KL tomorrow for amicable end to leadership row, After Chow tests positive, EC confirms GE15 candidates with Covid-19 excused from nominations, Stop using racial issues as a political tool, Zahid tells DAP, MASwings launches 'Jom Balik Undi' campaign to offer cheaper air tickets, GE15: Warisan to field candidates in 26 seats in peninsula, says Shafie, Malaysia's manufacturing sector loses momentum in October. To reduce losses and maximise returns on investment, this information can be used to develop: 1) coordinated, agreed plans for action; 2) a clear, evidence-based decision-making process, and; 3) financing models to ensure that the plans for early action can be implemented (Clarke and Dercon 2016a1099). Educ. Sci., 113 (42), 1177011775, doi:10.1073/pnas.1607171113. 75:335-46. Some certification schemes and best practice guidelines are specific to a particular agriculture crop (e.g., soya, sugarcane) or a tree (e.g., oil palm) while others are general. et al., 2018: Biogeophysical impacts of land use change on climate extremes in low-emission scenarios: Results from HAPPI-Land. ONeill et al. Stud., 55, 21292144, doi:10.1080/00220388.2018.1510118. Suckall, N., L.C. 2001). IJMS. 20149). 2012982; Mapfumo et al. It can be confused with land abandonment in some regions and countries, and therefore secure land-tenure at individual or community scales is important for its success (Zahawi et al. Figure 7.3 shows the risk level (from undetectable to very high, aggregating risks of food insecurity, loss of ES and water scarcity) as a function of the global amount of land (million km2) used for bioenergy, considering second generation bioenergy. 20161580, Extreme events In: Building Resilience for Adaptation to Climate Change in the Agriculture Sector [Meybeck, A., J. Lankoski, S. Redfern, N. Azzu, V. Gitz (eds.)]. 2016; Achat et al. 2012222). Barriers to land-based mitigation relate to full understanding of the permanence of carbon sequestration in soils or terrestrial biomass, the additionality of this storage, its impact on production and production shifts to other regions, measurement and monitoring systems and costs (Smith et al. Adapt. Policies may be challenged by adaptation limits (Section 7.4.9), inconsistency in formal and informal institutions in decision-making (Section 7.5.1) or result in maladaptation (Section 7.4.7). 20161059), and so is useful as a mitigation as well as an adaptation tool. Conserv., 23, 35873605, doi:10.1007/s10531-014-0801-8. There may be a trade- off between robustness to variability and optimality (Yousefpour and Hanewinkel 20161055; Ben-Ari and Makowski 20161056); but this type of analysis can help identify and quantify trade-offs. Levy, and P.H. Womens strong presence in agriculture provides an opportunity to bring gender dimensions into climate change adaptation, particularly regarding food security (Glemarec 2017; Jost et al. [91] It was introduced in October 1992. Recycl., 94, 136145, doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.10.005. 2018313; Radhakrishnan et al. 201414; Lavell et al. Forecast-based mechanisms can be linked with social protection systems by providing contingent scaled-up finance quickly to vulnerable populations following disasters, enhancing scalability, timeliness, predictability and adequacy of social protection benefits (Wilkinson 2018827; Costella et al. Tinsley, and W.J. 2013296; Whitmee et al. 4.6. 2018b), may further marginalise women. Hertel, 2013: Climate adaptation as mitigation: The case of agricultural investments. Bottom-up marginal abatement cost curves calculate the most cost effective cumulative potential for mitigation across different options (Eory et al. 12:(1)1-27. Mollenkamp, S., and B. Kasten, 2009: Institutional Adaptation to Climate Change: The Current Status and Future Strategies in the Elbe Basin, Germany. They are registered under the Cooperative Societies Act, 1912. 2014595). 2018b). Adaptive governance.Adaptive management identifies and responds to exposure and vulnerability to land and climate change impacts by identifying problems and objectives, making decisions in relation to response options, and instruments advancing response options in the context of uncertainty. Syst., 134, 1723, doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2014.08.010. Routledge, Abingdon, UK, and New York, USA, 288pp. Windows of opportunity are important learning moments wherein an event or disturbance in relation to land, climate, and food security triggers responsive social, political, policy change (medium agreement). 201432; Oppenheimer et al. 2016; Popp et al. 20171246; Fishman et al. Yami, M., C. Vogl, and M. Hauser, 2011: Informal institutions as mechanisms to address challenges in communal grazing land management in Tigray, Ethiopia. 2016a132). Yang, 2014: A total water management analysis of the Las Vegas Wash watershed, Nevada. Environ., 118, 628, doi:10.1016/j.agee.2006.06.006. Int. There is medium evidence and high agreement that transformational change is a necessary societal response option to manage climate risks which is uniquely characterised by the depth of change needed to reframe problems and change dominant mindsets, the scope of change needed (that is larger than just a few people) and the speed of change required to reduce emissions (OBrien et al. 2018447). Patriarchal structures and gender roles can also affect womens control over land in developed countries (Carter 2017; Alston et al. Chang., 52, 273285, doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.08.003. Sola, P., C. Ochieng, J. Yila, and M. Iiyama, 2016a: Links between energy access and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa: An exploratory review. 2018721). Tribbia, J., and S.C. Moser, 2008: More than information: What coastal managers need to plan for climate change. Clim. Proc. The main objective of the LDBs are to promote the development of land, agriculture and increase the agricultural production. 2013; van Andel and Carvalheiro 2013). Funds are entitled to impose a waiting period of up to 12 months on benefits for any medical condition the signs and symptoms of which existed during the six months ending on the day the person first took out insurance. 2010; Alexander et al. The efficiency of the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange: A collection of empirical findings. In other situations, incremental changes may be sufficient (Hadarits et al. Sci., 114, E122-E131, doi:10.1073/pnas.1611056113. 201291; Meyfroidt et al. In general, traditional biomass use is associated with poverty. Hanasaki et al. Mochizuki, J., S. Vitoontus, B. Wickramarachchi, S. Hochrainer-Stigler, K.Williges, R. Mechler, and R. Sovann, 2015: Operationalizing iterative risk management under limited information: Fiscal and economic risks due to natural disasters in Cambodia. Integrative approaches can provide coordination and linkages to improve effectiveness and efficiency and minimise conflicts (high confidence). Hewitt, R., H. van Delden, and F. Escobar, 2014: Participatory land use modelling, pathways to an integrated approach. Agric. As well as new opportunities for finance and support, the Paris cooperation mechanisms and the associated roles for technology transfer bring new challenges, particularly in reporting, verifying and accounting in land-use sectors. A study in rural Ethiopia found that male-headed households had access to a wider set of adaptation measures than female-headed households (Mersha and Van Laerhoven 2016). 20181194) (Section 7.5.6.1, where trade-offs exist between climate mitigation and food). Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Law Econ., 16, 433448, doi:10.1007/s10784-016-9323-z. There is high agreement and high evidence that increases in global mean temperature will result in continued increase in global vegetation loss, coastal degradation, as well as decreased crop yields in low latitudes, decreased food stability, decreased access to food and nutrition, and medium confidence in continued permafrost degradation and water scarcity in drylands. During 2628 March, the Supreme Court heard arguments regarding the validity of the Act. Zomer, R.J., A. Trabucco, D.A. 2017; Jagger and Das 2018; Quinn et al. Opin. Kissel, A.N. Soc. 05112022. The finding that the Finance Sector in Malaysian Stock Exchange is weak-form efficient has several important implications. By estimating the overall risk of health risk and health system expenses over the risk pool, an insurer can develop a routine finance structure, such as a monthly premium or payroll tax, to provide the money to pay for the health care benefits specified in the insurance agreement. While economics is usually based on the idea of a self-interested, rational agent, more recently insights from psychology are being used to understand and explain human behaviour in the field of behavioural economics (Shogren and Taylor 20081072; Kesternich et al. Log transformation is beneficial as it reduces non-normality of data series (Osborne, 2002). For instance, supply-side food security initiatives of land-based agriculture are impacting on marine fisheries globally through creation of dead-zones due to agricultural run-off (Diaz and Rosenberg 20081184). Eriksen, S. Ma, L.N. Transnational Environmental Law, 7, 3767, doi:10.1017/S2047102517000292. 21:(5)55-9. It allowed many health insurance systems to offer financial assistance to elderly people. Behav. In: Making Climate Compatible Development Happen [Nunan, F. They are licensed by RBI to do banking business. Introduced in October 1992 especially for current climate variability situations Lumpur Stock Exchange is efficient! 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